An Internship At Tufts Medical College - 1185 Words

You can’t expect my life story to be exciting to the point where you wish you were me, because it’s not. All I can say for myself is â€Å"wow†. I can’t believe I survived Kasturba Medical College (KMC) in India. It’s one of the top 10 medical colleges in India and it was a lot of work (citation 1). After medical college I did my masters, which helped me specialize in cardiac surgery. Each summer I would come back to the United States to do an internship at Tufts. I’m glad my schooling worked out okay in India because if I choose to study in the United States, I would have to be in school for a total of ten years before I could began my residency. But studying in India allowed me to study ten years worth of material in six years, and not to†¦show more content†¦The best part about it is that it’s voice activated. Their bed adjusts to their spinal structure and monitors their sleep patterns, their electronic floor mimics the i mage of fresh grass in the morning, their electronic walls accurately depict a dark green meadow, and they have an iWardrobe which suggests daily outfits based on the weather. My room is a lot more simpler. I painted my walls a dark pastel blue because I hear it’s the best for a relaxed environment. My floor is a smoky brown hardwood. My walls are isolated for the winter and soundproof all year round because I usually have to answer my patient’s calls. I have one desk in the corner with a Mac connected to a monitor that’s on my wall, a bed in the other corner, a bookshelf in the third corner, and a regular wardrobe with many scrubs in the last corner . Typically, I wake up at 5:15 a.m., refresh myself, cook some hard-boiled eggs, drink a homemade banana milkshake, throw on a scrub, and go to work using the UTS. Just ten years ago people depended on the MBTA for transportation. Now, everything has changed. They’ve built underground passages called Underground Transport System (UTS) which allows people to travel between cities at 80mph. Since big agricultural companies invested loads of money on genetically modified food, there was anShow MoreRelatedA Student Taking a Gap Year is Conceivable Essay1670 Words   |  7 PagesThe Gap year, taking a year off from college to work, travel or volunteer, has been growing in popularity in recent years in the US. This practice began in Britain in the 1960’s, and has spread to other parts of the world. Deciding to take Gap year after graduating high school, during or after college is a realistic alternative for students who are unsure of their true aspirations for the future. 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Essay on Word Stress - 1067 Words

Introduction Word stress is one of the essential and crucial parts which play a great role in English language learning. What is word stress and what are its features and why are they important to be identified: According to Underhill (2005) Word stress is an expression used to describe the accent or a highlight given to a particular part of a word and it is relatively consistent element of a word when spoken in isolation. Stress may occur on the first, middle or on the last syllable in a word. Words of more than one syllable usually consist of stressed and unstressed syllables. In English there is a unique correlation between the different parts of a word. Words with two or more syllables†¦show more content†¦In addition there is a regular physical relation between stress and pitch, in other words the stressed syllable usually has a high in pitch. Moreover stress syllables may uttered more evidently with the facial movements of the speaker and the sound produced is purer. These features are important to be known, because they are interconnected and have enormous affects in controlling the quantity of energy in articulation. According to Underhill(2005, p:53) â€Å"these features , singly or in combination, constitute word stress, and since there is more than one correlate, it follows that when teachers help learners to produce a clearer word stress they can choose whichever feature seems to be easy to control and guide the learners to the target sound of the utterance† What is unstressed syllable and what should it contain With the purpose of one syllable to be supposed as stressed, the syllables around it have to to be unstressed .in favour of stress syllables some features were identified. Unstressed may be defined as the absences of these features. Knowledge of the essential contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables may help learners in manyShow MoreRelatedWord Stress in English1480 Words   |  6 Pages Word stress in English 1. 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The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia an Assessment Free Essays

string(158) " sections will demonstrate the practical implications of this gap in international law in relation to the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia\." 1. Introduction 1.1 Background After the end of the Cold War, the international community had to build an entirely new agenda for human rights, democracy and development in the world’s most troubled regions (Forsythe, 2006: 210-215; Normand Zaidi, 2008: 316-323). We will write a custom essay sample on The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Africa, conflicts in the Congo, Rwanda and Somalia left the region tormented by an ongoing refugee crisis. The lack of stable political institutions and representative democracy in these countries necessitated the revision of international legal standards, in order to cope with the refugee crisis and to provide security and shelter. With over 3 million recognized refugees at present, Africa is considered by the UNHCR the biggest challenge, absorbing the largest proportion of the budget and humanitarian programmes (Zolberg et. al, 1989). This paper will focus on the treatment of Somali refugees in two of the neighbouring countries – Kenya and Ethiopia, which reportedly host the largest proportion of the refugees at present (UNHCR, 2011a;b;c). The reason why Somali refugees were chosen as the subject of this paper is because this is one of the longest ongoing political and humanitarian crises, and its implications upon regional politics and the local populations are perpetual. It also demonstrates the discrepancies in international law in dealing with displacement and human right violations of the Somali refugees. The paper will assess the treatment of refugees in these two countries. Based on this assessment, the author will make recommendations for the improvement of the treatment of the refugees. 1.2 Research question The purpose of this essay is to explore the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. Their treatment will be looked at through the prism of basic human rights conventions and will ideally seek to provide a broader understanding on the status of the refugees in a global era. It will highlight the main challenges, which refugees from Somalia face on the territories of Kenya and Ethiopia and will explain how these challenges are posed by inconsistencies in international law. In order to do this, the author will first critically approach the definition of the term â€Å"refugee†. Next, the author will attempt to trace whether basic provisions stipulated by the 1951 Convention on the Status of the Refugees have been met by the authorities in Ethiopia and Kenya. Before this, a brief historical overview of the main events leading to the refugee crisis will be provided. 2. The Somali refugee crisis – the prelude In Somalia, the transition to political independence has been scarred by factionalism and division. In the early 1990s, the clan based opposition groups ousted the military government, which led to the outbreak of decade long civil war, throughout which various factions were competing for power (Waldron Hasci, 1994). In 2004, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was formed. Its opposing faction was the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), which soon lost power to the TFG in the south. Subsequently, the TFG split into radical groups, Al-Shabaab being one of them. Since then, the Al-Shabaab has been fighting the TFG over political and economic supremacy (UNHCR, 2011c). The civil war resulted in the displacement of millions of Somali people, turning them into the third largest refugee group in the world, after the Iraq and Afghanistan refugees (UNHCR, 2011c). Apart from Western countries such as UK and Italy, Somali refugees travel to neighbouring countries, mostly Ethiopia and Kenya. As of July 2011, on the territory of Ethiopia there were 160,000 Somali refugees, residing in six large camps in the eastern and south-eastern part of the country. In 2011 the number of new arrivals increased dramatically with up to 23,000 people arriving per month. In Kenya, currently there are around 280,000 Somali refugees, and as of July 2011, their number has dramatically increased because of the draught in East Africa (UNHCR, 2011b). 3. Problems of definition The purposes if this essay would not be fulfilled, if the author does not provide a definition of the term â€Å"refugee†. According to Article 1 (2) of the 1951 UNHCR Convention on the Status of the Refugees, the term â€Å"refugee† shall apply to any person who: â€Å"[†¦]owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country [†¦]† (UNHCR, 1951). The same definition can be found in the OAU 1969 Convention on the Refugees in Africa (Article 1). The main criticism, which this definition obviously provokes, is the lack of prescriptions for the state of origin, and the obligations of the host countries. The definition exhausts the basic connotation of a refugee, which has not changed much to this day, but does not define the responsibilities and actions, which the host authorities are obliged to take under international law. The definition explains the confines of the country of persecution, but not the terms of protection of refugees in foreign territories. This is not a technical flaw of the definition, as embedded in the convention, but a general weakness of international law, when it comes to the treatment of refugees in host countries (Marfleet, 2006; 9-20; Gibney, 2005:6-13). This raises several issues related to legitimacy, and they are not, as proposed by Zolberg et.al (1989) related to the debate who is a refugee under international law. These controversies are related to the lack of legally binding prescriptions for the host countries, sheltering refugees. Despite the fact that there has been ongoing development of the understanding of the term persecution since 1951, it remains unclear how persecution of refugees can be prevented in the host territories. Therefore, it is important to trace the implications of this inconsistency in terms of policy and treatment of the Somali refuges in Ethiopia and Kenya and identify problems, which might arise from the lack of a clear definition of persecution and the responsibilities of the host countries. The following sections will demonstrate the practical implications of this gap in international law in relation to the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. You read "The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment" in category "Essay examples" 4. Treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya According to the UNHCR, more than 600, 000 Somali refugees are now residing in neighbouring countries (2011). At present, Kenya is the country, where largest proportions of the Somali refugees are seeking shelter. Currently, it is hosting around 280 000 refugees, residing in three large camps, located in the North Eastern Daabab camps (UNHCR, 2011b). Although it is clear that Kenya has been unable to cope with the intense wave of Somali immigrants without the assistance of the international community, in 2010, Amnesty International has reported grieve violations of rights of the refuges on behalf of the Kenyan authorities (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The report says that thousands of refugees were forcibly returned to Somalia, and asylum was not provided to the individuals which claimed for it. The report also reveals the implications of the fact that a large proportion of the refugees were not screened because of the closure of the immigration centre at the Kenya-Somali border. It was closed because Kenyan authorities were concerned that ongoing violence in Somalia and persistent acts of terrorism could spread on their own territory (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The other conclusions of Amnesty International are related to police harassment in the camps, and violation of the principle of no n-refoulement (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The principle of non-refoulement, which is embedded in the UNHCR Convention for the Refugees prohibits â€Å"the expulsion, extradition, deportation, return or otherwise removal of any person in any manner whatsoever to a country or territory where he or she would face a real risk of persecution or serious harm† (UNHCR Convention on the Status of the Refugees, 1951). The report reveals that when the Kenyan authorities closed the border, around 4000 Somalis were trapped alongside and 360 were refouled. In 2009, 93 Somali asylum seekers were forcibly refouled back to Somalia. It is now clear that by choosing to close its border, Kenya has violated the principle of non-refoulement of the UN and the 1967 Protocol, as well as its own 2006 Refugee Act. Further implications of the closure of the transit border centre is that the newly arrived refugees are no longer screened for health purposes, and some of them have suffered exhaustion and malnutrition on their way to the camps (which are located about 80 km from the border). Another type of violations is related to the security and well being of the refugees, often threatened by the Kenyan security forces. As of December 2010, issues related to limited access to water, shelter, sanitation and other essential services due to overcrowding have been reported. In addition, the refugees are not allowed outside the camps unless in exceptional circumstances such as relocation to third countries (Amnesty International, 2010). Other violations include sexual harassment, forced marriages in the camps, as well as the involuntary recruitment of refugees for military service. Based on this report, it is not difficult to determine that Kenyan authorities have allowed the unlawful treatment of Somali refugees by local militias, and have committed violations related to their treatment on the territory of the host country. In sum, a closer look at the treatment of the Somali refugees in Kenya reveals that there have been violations of key provisions, related to the status of the refugees. From a legal perspective, this is due to the fact that there are no legally binding provisions, which define the responsibilities of the host countries, or penalties in case of violations. By no legally binding it is meant that the existing rules and regulations remain prescriptive of how the hosting countries need to treat refugees, seeking shelter on their territory. As stated earlier before, there is not a clear definition of persecution and the counter-measures, which it entails, therefore the actions of the Kenyan authorities remain unaddressed under international law. As the next section will reveal, the situation in Ethiopia is quite similar. 5. Treatment of Somali refugees in Ethiopia As mentioned earlier in the essay, Ethiopia is the country, where the second highest proportion of Somali refugees resides. An estimate of 280, 000 refugees have fled to Ethiopia since the beginning of the conflict in Somalia more than two decades ago. They have been accommodated in eight camps along the Ethio-Somali border (UNHCR, 2011). Similarly to the case in Kenya, the refugees are denied access to education and work opportunities, as well as free movement and access to healthcare. According to Markos (2011), the main reasons for the unlawful treatment of the Somali refugees in Ethiopia generate from the gap between national legislation and international legal standards, related to the status of the refugees. Despite the fact that Ethiopia has ratified key international refugee instruments such as the 1951 Convention, the 1967 Protocol and the 1969 OAU Convention, the treatment of the Somali refugees on the territory of the country is a signifier that constraints to the implemen tation of their provision on national level are ostensible. Understandably, the Ethiopian authorities are trying to protect their scarce national resources and infrastructure, which explains why their tolerance to the refugee influx is not high (Waldron Hasci, 1994). From the perspective of the international community however, this does not ameliorate the fact that many Somalis face grieve human rights violations in the camps on the territory of Ethiopia. Some of the key provisions of the 1951 Convention have been violated such as the right of freedom, the right to choose their place of residence, the right to move freely within the country, as well as the access to elementary and religious education. In sum, although the situation with the treatment of the refugees in Ethiopia is not so grieve as the one in Kenya, Somali refugees in Ethiopia still face deprivations and human right violations. This is due to the scarce resources in the country, as well as the gaps in national legislation, which do not allow the direct implementation of key provisions of international law, related to the status of the refugees. Based on the above observations on the treatment of the refugees in these two countries, a brief set of recommendations will be provided in the following section. 6. Recommendations This section will provide a brief set of recommendations for policy reform and action for the improvement of the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. The recommendations have been divided in four groups – general recommendations, recommendations for Kenya, recommendations for Ethiopia, and recommendations for the international community. 6.1 General recommendations The previous sections have shown that without clear definition on persecution and the responsibilities of the host countries, it would be impossible to provide shield of refugees and displaced people under international law. Therefore, a revision of the legal provisions related with the refugees is necessary. In the near future however, a revision of existing refugee legislation might be a cumbersome and formidable process, because it would involve redrafting existing legislation, its ratification and its incorporation into host countries’ judiciary system. In addition, it is not clear how this would help overcome other challenges, related to refugee protection, such as the ones mentioned by Landgren (1998) – agents of persecution; the notion of political offence in extradition treaties; the criminalization of illegal departure; and the precipitation of repatriation. Despite the fact that the principle of non-refoulment remains one of the strongest refugee rights, and d espite the presence of â€Å"minimum rights clauses† for the treatment of refugees in the 1951 Convention, their enforcement in countries, where poverty and political instability are persistent, remains a challenge. As a result, existing legislation needs to be revised in order to meet the new security threats, raised by globalization and the incapacity of many states to protect their own civilian populations. At present, the definition of the term refugee is problematic because it does not provide a clear direction of what responsibilities the host countries need to have. Therefore a revision of the definition, as well as existing legislation is necessary. As a result, the responsibilities of the host countries-signatories to the refugee instruments should be legally binding. 6.2 Recommendations for Kenya The most important recommendation for the Kenyan authority is to open the border control camp which would facilitate the registration of the refugees, and the access of the newly arrived to healthcare, food and clean water. At present Kenyan authorities are concerned that if the border is open, this might provide access to Kenya of the militant members of Al-Shabaab, which is a major security threat for the civilian population (Daily Mail, 2011). However, a stronger border control and the allocation of additional police and military units, which would perform thorough checks on those wishing to cross the border, is a possible solution. The most important recommendation for the Kenyan government in order to improve the situation with the refugees is to ensure that the security forces do not violate the principle of non-refoulement. This can take place if more international observers are allowed in the camps and on the Somali-Kenyan border. 6.3 Recommendations for Ethiopia In Ethiopia, the revision of national legislation is crucial for the implementation of the international provisions, related with the rights of the refugees. In a country with feeble political and judiciary institutions, the process will be cumbersome, but legal revision is necessary in order to provide refugees and asylum-seekers protection. 6.4 Recommendations for the international community As far as the actions of the international organisations, regional organisations and the donor countries are concerned, they need to be related with raising awareness of the situation, and stronger measures related to monitoring and accountability of the actions of the security forces on the territory of both countries. This means that institutions such as the UNHCR, and regional organisations such as OAU and ACHPR (African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights) need to play a more proactive role in liaising with local governments and observing the situation in countries like Kenya and Ethiopia. This can be implemented using two channels – a liaison with government agencies, and regular reports, provided by non-governmental organizations on the situation within the camps. It is important that efforts for the protection of the refugees are made on all four of the above levels. Only the vertical harmonization of actions between national authorities and the international community, wrapped in an appropriate legal framework, can eventually lead to the creation of a safer environment for the Somali refugees, and the determination of their international status in the global era. 7. Conclusion This paper has shown that despite the efforts of the international community, there are problems, related with the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. The lack of commitment of the host countries, and the lack of coordination between national governments and international organisations have perpetuated the crisis. In order to fulfil its commitments for democratization and political stability on the African continent, the international community needs to revise key legal provisions relating to the status of the refugees, and to ensure that there are no constraints for their implementation on national level. In addition, the international status of the refugees needs to be determined, in order to give them legitimacy and protection in a global world. Bibliography Amnesty International (2010) â€Å"From life without peace to peace without life. The treatment of Somali Refugees and Asylum-seekers in Kenya†, 8 December, Index: AFR 32/015/2010, Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR32/015/2010/en/1eb8bd34-2a5c-4aa4-8814-83e0e8df8ebf/afr320152010en.pdf Retrieved: 12.02.2012 Daily Mail (2011) â€Å"Somalian militants vow revenge suicide attacks after Kenyan army crosses border following kidnappings†, updated 17 October, 2011 Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2050240/Somalian-militant-group-Al-Shabab-threatens-Kenya-suicide-attacks.html Retrieved: 15.04.2012 Forsythe, D. (2006) Human Rights in International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gibney, M.J. (2005) The Ethics and Politics of Asylum. Liberal Democracy and the Response to Refugees, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press OAU (1969) Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, Available at: http://www.africa-union.org/Official_documents/Treaties_%20Conventions_%20Protocols/Refugee_Convention.pdf Retrieved 12.02.2012 Marfleet, P. (2006) Refugees in a Global Era, Basingstoke: Macmillian Markos, K. (2011) The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Ethiopia under Ethiopian and International Law, International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol 9, Issue 3, p. 365-391. Landgren, K. (1998) â€Å"The Future of Refugee Protection: Four Challenges† Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 4, Pp. 416-432 Normand, R. Zaidi, S. (2008) Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice, Indiana University Press UNHCR (1951) Convention Relating to the Status of the Refugees, Resolution 2198, Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR (1967) Protocol Relating to the Status of the Refugees, Resolution 2198, Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011a) â€Å"Ethiopia. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Ethiopia†, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483986 Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011b) â€Å"Kenya. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Kenya† Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483a16submit=GO Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011c) â€Å"Somalia. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Somalia† Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483ad6submit=GO Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR (2011d) â€Å"The International Protection of Refugees: Interpreting Article 1 of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees†, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3b20a3914.pdf Retrieved 12.02.2012 Waldron, S., Hasci, N. (1994)â€Å"Somali refugees in the Horn of Africa: state of the art literature review†, Report No.3, Refugee Studies Programme, Queen Elisabeth House, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Zolberg, A., Zuhrke, A. Aguayo, S. (1989) Escape from Violence. Conflict and Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. Oxford: Oxford University Press How to cite The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment, Essay examples The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia an Assessment Free Essays string(149) " will demonstrate the practical implications of this gap in international law in relation to the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia\." Introduction 1.1 Background After the end of the Cold War, the international community had to build an entirely new agenda for human rights, democracy and development in the world’s most troubled regions (Forsythe, 2006: 210-215; Normand Zaidi, 2008: 316-323). In Africa, conflicts in the Congo, Rwanda and Somalia left the region tormented by an ongoing refugee crisis. We will write a custom essay sample on The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment or any similar topic only for you Order Now The lack of stable political institutions and representative democracy in these countries necessitated the revision of international legal standards, in order to cope with the refugee crisis and to provide security and shelter. With over 3 million recognized refugees at present, Africa is considered by the UNHCR the biggest challenge, absorbing the largest proportion of the budget and humanitarian programmes (Zolberg et. al, 1989). This paper will focus on the treatment of Somali refugees in two of the neighbouring countries – Kenya and Ethiopia, which reportedly host the largest proportion of the refugees at present (UNHCR, 2011a;b;c). The reason why Somali refugees were chosen as the subject of this paper is because this is one of the longest ongoing political and humanitarian crises, and its implications upon regional politics and the local populations are perpetual. It also demonstrates the discrepancies in international law in dealing with displacement and human right violations of the Somali refugees. The paper will assess the treatment of refugees in these two countries. Based on this assessment, the author will make recommendations for the improvement of the treatment of the refugees. 1.2 Research question The purpose of this essay is to explore the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. Their treatment will be looked at through the prism of basic human rights conventions and will ideally seek to provide a broader understanding on the status of the refugees in a global era. It will highlight the main challenges, which refugees from Somalia face on the territories of Kenya and Ethiopia and will explain how these challenges are posed by inconsistencies in international law. In order to do this, the author will first critically approach the definition of the term â€Å"refugee†. Next, the author will attempt to trace whether basic provisions stipulated by the 1951 Convention on the Status of the Refugees have been met by the authorities in Ethiopia and Kenya. Before this, a brief historical overview of the main events leading to the refugee crisis will be provided. The Somali refugee crisis – the prelude In Somalia, the transition to political independence has been scarred by factionalism and division. In the early 1990s, the clan based opposition groups ousted the military government, which led to the outbreak of decade long civil war, throughout which various factions were competing for power (Waldron Hasci, 1994). In 2004, the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was formed. Its opposing faction was the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), which soon lost power to the TFG in the south. Subsequently, the TFG split into radical groups, Al-Shabaab being one of them. Since then, the Al-Shabaab has been fighting the TFG over political and economic supremacy (UNHCR, 2011c). The civil war resulted in the displacement of millions of Somali people, turning them into the third largest refugee group in the world, after the Iraq and Afghanistan refugees (UNHCR, 2011c). Apart from Western countries such as UK and Italy, Somali refugees travel to neighbouring countries, mostly Ethiopia and Kenya. As of July 2011, on the territory of Ethiopia there were 160,000 Somali refugees, residing in six large camps in the eastern and south-eastern part of the country. In 2011 the number of new arrivals increased dramatically with up to 23,000 people arriving per month. In Kenya, currently there are around 280,000 Somali refugees, and as of July 2011, their number has dramatically increased because of the draught in East Africa (UNHCR, 2011b). 3. Problems of definition The purposes if this essay would not be fulfilled, if the author does not provide a definition of the term â€Å"refugee†. According to Article 1 (2) of the 1951 UNHCR Convention on the Status of the Refugees, the term â€Å"refugee† shall apply to any person who: â€Å"[†¦]owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country [†¦]† (UNHCR, 1951). The same definition can be found in the OAU 1969 Convention on the Refugees in Africa (Article 1). The main criticism, which this definition obviously provokes, is the lack of prescriptions for the state of origin, and the obligations of the host countries. The definition exhausts the basic connotation of a refugee, which has not changed much to this day, but does not define the responsibilities and actions, which the host authorities are obliged to take under international law. The definition explains the confines of the country of persecution, but not the terms of protection of refugees in foreign territories. This is not a technical flaw of the definition, as embedded in the convention, but a general weakness of international law, when it comes to the treatment of refugees in host countries (Marfleet, 2006; 9-20; Gibney, 2005:6-13). This raises several issues related to legitimacy, and they are not, as proposed by Zolberg et.al (1989) related to the debate who is a refugee under international law. These controversies are related to the lack of legally binding prescriptions for the host countries, sheltering refugees. Despite the fact that there has been ongoing development of the understanding of the term persecution since 1951, it remains unclear how persecution of refugees can be prevented in the host territories. Therefore, it is important to trace the implications of this inconsistency in terms of policy and treatment of the Somali refuges in Ethiopia and Kenya and identify problems, which might arise from the lack of a clear definition of persecution and the responsibilities of the host countries. The following sections will demonstrate the practical implications of this gap in international law in relation to the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. You read "The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment" in category "Essay examples" 4. Treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya According to the UNHCR, more than 600, 000 Somali refugees are now residing in neighbouring countries (2011). At present, Kenya is the country, where largest proportions of the Somali refugees are seeking shelter. Currently, it is hosting around 280 000 refugees, residing in three large camps, located in the North Eastern Daabab camps (UNHCR, 2011b). Although it is clear that Kenya has been unable to cope with the intense wave of Somali immigrants without the assistance of the international community, in 2010, Amnesty International has reported grieve violations of rights of the refuges on behalf of the Kenyan authorities (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The report says that thousands of refugees were forcibly returned to Somalia, and asylum was not provided to the individuals which claimed for it. The report also reveals the implications of the fact that a large proportion of the refugees were not screened because of the closure of the immigration centre at the Kenya-Somali border. It was closed because Kenyan authorities were concerned that ongoing violence in Somalia and persistent acts of terrorism could spread on their own territory (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The other conclusions of Amnesty International are related to police harassment in the camps, and violation of the principle of no n-refoulement (Amnesty International Report AFR 32/015, 2010). The principle of non-refoulement, which is embedded in the UNHCR Convention for the Refugees prohibits â€Å"the expulsion, extradition, deportation, return or otherwise removal of any person in any manner whatsoever to a country or territory where he or she would face a real risk of persecution or serious harm† (UNHCR Convention on the Status of the Refugees, 1951). The report reveals that when the Kenyan authorities closed the border, around 4000 Somalis were trapped alongside and 360 were refouled. In 2009, 93 Somali asylum seekers were forcibly refouled back to Somalia. It is now clear that by choosing to close its border, Kenya has violated the principle of non-refoulement of the UN and the 1967 Protocol, as well as its own 2006 Refugee Act. Further implications of the closure of the transit border centre is that the newly arrived refugees are no longer screened for health purposes, and some of them have suffered exhaustion and malnutrition on their way to the camps (which are located about 80 km from the border). Another type of violations is related to the security and well being of the refugees, often threatened by the Kenyan security forces. As of December 2010, issues related to limited access to water, shelter, sanitation and other essential services due to overcrowding have been reported. In addition, the refugees are not allowed outside the camps unless in exceptional circumstances such as relocation to third countries (Amnesty International, 2010). Other violations include sexual harassment, forced marriages in the camps, as well as the involuntary recruitment of refugees for military service. Based on this report, it is not difficult to determine that Kenyan authorities have allowed the unlawful treatment of Somali refugees by local militias, and have committed violations related to their treatment on the territory of the host country. In sum, a closer look at the treatment of the Somali refugees in Kenya reveals that there have been violations of key provisions, related to the status of the refugees. From a legal perspective, this is due to the fact that there are no legally binding provisions, which define the responsibilities of the host countries, or penalties in case of violations. By no legally binding it is meant that the existing rules and regulations remain prescriptive of how the hosting countries need to treat refugees, seeking shelter on their territory. As stated earlier before, there is not a clear definition of persecution and the counter-measures, which it entails, therefore the actions of the Kenyan authorities remain unaddressed under international law. As the next section will reveal, the situation in Ethiopia is quite similar. 5. Treatment of Somali refugees in Ethiopia As mentioned earlier in the essay, Ethiopia is the country, where the second highest proportion of Somali refugees resides. An estimate of 280, 000 refugees have fled to Ethiopia since the beginning of the conflict in Somalia more than two decades ago. They have been accommodated in eight camps along the Ethio-Somali border (UNHCR, 2011). Similarly to the case in Kenya, the refugees are denied access to education and work opportunities, as well as free movement and access to healthcare. According to Markos (2011), the main reasons for the unlawful treatment of the Somali refugees in Ethiopia generate from the gap between national legislation and international legal standards, related to the status of the refugees. Despite the fact that Ethiopia has ratified key international refugee instruments such as the 1951 Convention, the 1967 Protocol and the 1969 OAU Convention, the treatment of the Somali refugees on the territory of the country is a signifier that constraints to the implemen tation of their provision on national level are ostensible. Understandably, the Ethiopian authorities are trying to protect their scarce national resources and infrastructure, which explains why their tolerance to the refugee influx is not high (Waldron Hasci, 1994). From the perspective of the international community however, this does not ameliorate the fact that many Somalis face grieve human rights violations in the camps on the territory of Ethiopia. Some of the key provisions of the 1951 Convention have been violated such as the right of freedom, the right to choose their place of residence, the right to move freely within the country, as well as the access to elementary and religious education. In sum, although the situation with the treatment of the refugees in Ethiopia is not so grieve as the one in Kenya, Somali refugees in Ethiopia still face deprivations and human right violations. This is due to the scarce resources in the country, as well as the gaps in national legislation, which do not allow the direct implementation of key provisions of international law, related to the status of the refugees. Based on the above observations on the treatment of the refugees in these two countries, a brief set of recommendations will be provided in the following section. 6. Recommendations This section will provide a brief set of recommendations for policy reform and action for the improvement of the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. The recommendations have been divided in four groups – general recommendations, recommendations for Kenya, recommendations for Ethiopia, and recommendations for the international community. 6.1 General recommendations The previous sections have shown that without clear definition on persecution and the responsibilities of the host countries, it would be impossible to provide shield of refugees and displaced people under international law. Therefore, a revision of the legal provisions related with the refugees is necessary. In the near future however, a revision of existing refugee legislation might be a cumbersome and formidable process, because it would involve redrafting existing legislation, its ratification and its incorporation into host countries’ judiciary system. In addition, it is not clear how this would help overcome other challenges, related to refugee protection, such as the ones mentioned by Landgren (1998) – agents of persecution; the notion of political offence in extradition treaties; the criminalization of illegal departure; and the precipitation of repatriation. Despite the fact that the principle of non-refoulment remains one of the strongest refugee rights, and despite the presence of â€Å"minimum rights clauses† for the treatment of refugees in the 1951 Convention, their enforcement in countries, where poverty and political instability are persistent, remains a challenge. As a result, existing legislation needs to be revised in order to meet the new security threats, raised by globalization and the incapacity of many states to protect their own civilian populations. At present, the definition of the term refugee is problematic because it does not provide a clear direction of what responsibilities the host countries need to have. Therefore a revision of the definition, as well as existing legislation is necessary. As a result, the responsibilities of the host countries-signatories to the refugee instruments should be legally binding. 6.2 Recommendations for Kenya The most important recommendation for the Kenyan authority is to open the border control camp which would facilitate the registration of the refugees, and the access of the newly arrived to healthcare, food and clean water. At present Kenyan authorities are concerned that if the border is open, this might provide access to Kenya of the militant members of Al-Shabaab, which is a major security threat for the civilian population (Daily Mail, 2011). However, a stronger border control and the allocation of additional police and military units, which would perform thorough checks on those wishing to cross the border, is a possible solution. The most important recommendation for the Kenyan government in order to improve the situation with the refugees is to ensure that the security forces do not violate the principle of non-refoulement. This can take place if more international observers are allowed in the camps and on the Somali-Kenyan border. 6.3 Recommendations for Ethiopia In Ethiopia, the revision of national legislation is crucial for the implementation of the international provisions, related with the rights of the refugees. In a country with feeble political and judiciary institutions, the process will be cumbersome, but legal revision is necessary in order to provide refugees and asylum-seekers protection. 6.4 Recommendations for the international community As far as the actions of the international organisations, regional organisations and the donor countries are concerned, they need to be related with raising awareness of the situation, and stronger measures related to monitoring and accountability of the actions of the security forces on the territory of both countries. This means that institutions such as the UNHCR, and regional organisations such as OAU and ACHPR (African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights) need to play a more proactive role in liaising with local governments and observing the situation in countries like Kenya and Ethiopia. This can be implemented using two channels – a liaison with government agencies, and regular reports, provided by non-governmental organizations on the situation within the camps. It is important that efforts for the protection of the refugees are made on all four of the above levels. Only the vertical harmonization of actions between national authorities and the international community, wrapped in an appropriate legal framework, can eventually lead to the creation of a safer environment for the Somali refugees, and the determination of their international status in the global era. Conclusion This paper has shown that despite the efforts of the international community, there are problems, related with the treatment of Somali refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. The lack of commitment of the host countries, and the lack of coordination between national governments and international organisations have perpetuated the crisis. In order to fulfil its commitments for democratization and political stability on the African continent, the international community needs to revise key legal provisions relating to the status of the refugees, and to ensure that there are no constraints for their implementation on national level. In addition, the international status of the refugees needs to be determined, in order to give them legitimacy and protection in a global world. Bibliography Amnesty International (2010) â€Å"From life without peace to peace without life. The treatment of Somali Refugees and Asylum-seekers in Kenya†, 8 December, Index: AFR 32/015/2010, Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR32/015/2010/en/1eb8bd34-2a5c-4aa4-8814-83e0e8df8ebf/afr320152010en.pdf Retrieved: 12.02.2012 Daily Mail (2011) â€Å"Somalian militants vow revenge suicide attacks after Kenyan army crosses border following kidnappings†, updated 17 October, 2011 Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2050240/Somalian-militant-group-Al-Shabab-threatens-Kenya-suicide-attacks.html Retrieved: 15.04.2012 Forsythe, D. (2006) Human Rights in International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gibney, M.J. (2005) The Ethics and Politics of Asylum. Liberal Democracy and the Response to Refugees, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press OAU (1969) Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, Available at: http://www.africa-union.org/Official_documents/Treaties_%20Conventions_%20Protocols/Refugee_Convention.pdf Retrieved 12.02.2012 Marfleet, P. (2006) Refugees in a Global Era, Basingstoke: Macmillian Markos, K. (2011) The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Ethiopia under Ethiopian and International Law, International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol 9, Issue 3, p. 365-391. Landgren, K. (1998) â€Å"The Future of Refugee Protection: Four Challenges† Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 4, Pp. 416-432 Normand, R. Zaidi, S. (2008) Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice, Indiana University Press UNHCR (1951) Convention Relating to the Status of the Refugees, Resolution 2198, Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR (1967) Protocol Relating to the Status of the Refugees, Resolution 2198, Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011a) â€Å"Ethiopia. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Ethiopia†, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483986 Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011b) â€Å"Kenya. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Kenya† Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483a16submit=GO Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR, UN Refugee Agency (2011c) â€Å"Somalia. 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Somalia† Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e483ad6submit=GO Retrieved 12.02.2012 UNHCR (2011d) â€Å"The International Protection of Refugees: Interpreting Article 1 of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees†, Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3b20a3914.pdf Retrieved 12.02.2012 Waldron, S., Hasci, N. (1994)â€Å"Somali refugees in the Horn of Africa: state of the art literature review†, Report No.3, Refugee Studies Programme, Queen Elisabeth House, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Zolberg, A., Zuhrke, A. Aguayo, S. (1989) Escape from Violence. Conflict and Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. Oxford: Oxford University Press How to cite The Treatment of Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia: an Assessment, Essay examples

Reader Response Criticism free essay sample

Readers immerse themselves into the text, imagine what happened and feel what is perceived by the characters. Purves, et al. (1990) adds the definition above that when reading works of literary readers include not only feelings but to include the mind and imagination as well as those quoted from the statement Literature and the arts exist in the curriculum as a means for students to learn to express Their emotions,  Their thought, and Their imaginations. †   According Kimtafsirah (2003:6) readers who are engaged with the text, merged with the text in terms of applying Rosenblatt is an aesthetic reading. In aesthetic reading, as if the reader into the text and live there in order to understand the behavior of the characters. Thus, readers can respond emotionally with ease so that the understanding reached. | Feeling, imagination, thought| 1. Can you feel what is felt by the character? What does he/she feel? 2. Would you do the same thing if you were the character? Explain it. We will write a custom essay sample on Reader Response Criticism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 3. Can you imagine what happens? Explain it. | 2| Describing(Detailing)| Readers can describe the text by refilling the elements of the text, or by refilling the characteristics of the characters. Readers back detailing or describing information contained in the text. Readers detailing the characters, characterizations, background story, and story lines. That is, the reader retells the story he had read and detailing the events that are considered important to understand. When reading a literary text, will be found different things in the same text. Students tell the parts that interest them, at least in three sentences. Previously, they can specify all the elements of the building are structurally literary works such as: character, background, and the storyline. Application of this response can facilitate learners in achieving honesty, compassion, and caring. For example Malin Kundang story. After reading Malin Kundang, the first question put to them. Malin Kundang as a rebellious figure in the storys sharp criticism of the appreciation. Learners are not going to like the characters actions and behavior. They learn honesty, compassion, and care after appreciating and exploring the story. | Character, characterization, setting, theme, style. | 1. What do you think of the character of the story? Is he/she good or bad? Do you like or dislike him/her? 2. Where does the story happen? Do you like the setting? Why? 3. Does the story tell about good things? 4. Is the story reasonable? Is the style of the story communicative of figurative? Explain it. 5. What event in the story do you think is very important? Why? | 3| Conceiving(Understanding)| Understanding in this step the reader can understand the text by skimming, scanning, asks questions about the characters, etc. The reader understands the characters, background stories, and the language used in a story and the meanings. In this activity, students understand the characters by applying their knowledge of social behavior in society and cultural backgrounds. Understanding of the characters is also supported by the opinion Kimtafsirah (2003:7) that knowledge of the text cannot be separated with the understanding of social behavior and cultural background is reflected from the text. For example, when students read the story with the customs of different cultures and backgrounds with them then they can understand the behavior of the characters is not from their culture. | Reason| 1. Why is the character forbidden to do something? | 4| Explaining| The reader explains the characteristic of each character, vocabulary, expression used, etc. | Character’s action, agreement| 1. A character is extremely hated by someone but he/she keeps patient and obeys. What do you think of the character’s action? 2. Do you agree or disagree of the bad action done by anyone to the character? Why? | 5| Interpreting| When readers interpret a text, they might employ the reaction, connection, and conception they have mode to articulate the theme of the text. Or the readers can interpret the expressions used in the story. Readers use the reaction, conception, and the connections they form to articulate the theme. Activities involving the determination of interpreting symbolic meanings, themes, or specific events from a text. In making interpretations, usually under discussion is what the text express. Interpretation involves a generalization, not a statement made that statement in the text but implicit in the text. In your point of view, what does the story talk about? | 6| Connecting| Comparing the reader can compare the text to something else, for example to his experience. The readers connect their experiences with what happens to the characters. Other activities in this strategy are to connect the story with another story or never read or watch movies. Kimtafsirah (2003:8) illustrates as the following example: after reading the works of Charles Dickens Oliver Twist, students can compare it with the film Hanggara Ari.